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==Procedures== {{Main|Procedures of the United States Congress}} ===Sessions=== A term of Congress is divided into two "[[legislative session|sessions]]", one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or ''[[special session]]''. A new session commences on January{{spaces}}3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress to meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house. ===Joint sessions=== {{Main|Joint session of the United States Congress}} Joint sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from House and Senate. These sessions include counting [[electoral votes]] after a presidential election and the president's [[State of the Union]] address. The [[State of the Union|constitutionally mandated report]], normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain's [[Speech from the Throne]], was written by most presidents after [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilson]] in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the speaker of the House, except when counting presidential electoral votes when the vice president (acting as the president of the Senate) presides. ===Bills and resolutions=== {{See also|Act of Congress|List of United States federal legislation}} [[File:Private Law 86-407.jpg|thumb|An [[Act of Congress]] from 1960]] [[File:US House Committee.jpg|thumb|The [[United States House Committee on Financial Services|U.S. Committee on Financial Services]] with committee members sitting in the tiers of raised chairs and those testifying and audience members sitting below]] Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> A proposal is usually in one of these forms: *Bills are laws in the making. A House-originated bill begins with the letters "H.R." for "House of Representatives", followed by a number kept as it progresses.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> *Joint resolutions. There is little difference between a bill and a joint resolution since both are treated similarly; a joint resolution originating from the House, for example, begins "H.J.Res." followed by its number.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> *Concurrent Resolutions affect only the House and Senate and accordingly are not presented to the president. In the House, they begin with "H.Con.Res."<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> *Simple resolutions concern only the House or only the Senate and begin with "H.Res." or "S.Res."<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the ''hopper'' on the Clerk's desk.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> It is assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience" and sometimes take a year or more.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate [[Parliamentary procedure|procedure]]. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. The Constitution states: "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives." While the Senate cannot originate [[revenue]] and [[Appropriations bill (United States)|appropriation bills]], it has the power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a [[U.S. House Committee on Rules|Rules Committee]] guides legislation; in the Senate, a [[Standing Rules of the Senate|Standing Rules]] committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent" for noncontroversial matters.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before a bill can become a law.<ref name=tws2010Sep11t14aa/> Members sometimes turn to outside experts to learn about proper congressional procedures.<ref>{{cite news |author= Partnership for Public Service |title= Walter Oleszek: A Hill Staffer's Guide to Congressional History and Habit |newspaper= The Washington Post |date= March 29, 2009 |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/27/AR2009032701563.html |access-date= September 11, 2010 |archive-date= January 14, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210114214454/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/27/AR2009032701563.html |url-status= live }}</ref> Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the [[Government Accountability Office]].<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Most legislation is considered by [[standing committee]]s which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> A committee might call for public hearings on important bills.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Each committee is led by a [[chairperson|chair]] who belongs to the majority party and a [[ranking minority member|ranking member]] of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Then, a bill may go to what is called a ''mark-up'' session, where committee members debate the bill's merits and may offer amendments or revisions.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is ''tabled'' then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so-called ''clean bill'' with a new number.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.<ref>{{cite news |date=April 5, 1971 |title=Blacks: Confronting the President |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876892,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081221212755/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,876892,00.html |archive-date=December 21, 2008 |access-date=September 11, 2010 |newspaper=Time}}</ref> A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> and begins with an [[enacting formula]] such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled{{spaces}}..." Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a ''rule'' which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate{{snd}}time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Sometimes opponents seek to ''recommit'' a bill which means to change part of it.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> Generally, discussion requires a ''quorum'', usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions.<ref>{{cite news |title= News from Washington |newspaper= The New York Times |date= December 3, 1861 |url= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30611FA38541A7493C1A91789D95F458684F9 |archive-url= https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010131909/http://www.nytimes.com/1861/12/03/news/washington-meeting-thirty-seventh-congress-quorum-present-both-houses-business.html |url-status = dead|archive-date= October 10, 2017 |access-date= September 11, 2010 }}</ref> The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows. Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a [[United States congressional conference committee|conference committee]], an ''ad hoc'' committee that includes senators and representatives<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> sometimes by using a ''reconciliation process'' to limit budget bills.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as ''pay-as-you-go'' or ''paygo'' which discourages members from considering acts that increase budget deficits.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails. The Constitution specifies that a majority of members (a [[quorum]]) be present before doing business in each house. The rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a [[quorum call]] demonstrates the contrary and debate often continues despite the lack of a majority. Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye" or "no" and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution requires a [[Voting methods in deliberative assemblies|recorded vote]] if demanded by one-fifth of the members present or when voting to override a presidential veto. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses [[Voting methods in deliberative assemblies|roll-call voting]], in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when their name is announced. In the Senate, the Vice President may cast the tie-breaking vote if present when the senators are equally divided. The House reserves roll-call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote ''yea'' or ''nay'' or ''present'' or ''open''.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Members insert a voting ''ID card'' and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used occasionally (''yea'' indicated by green and ''nay'' by red).<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> One member cannot cast a [[proxy vote]] for another.<ref name=tws2010Sep11bb/> Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.<ref>{{cite news |author= United States government |title= Recent Votes |publisher= United States Senate |year= 2010 |url= https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/legislative/a_three_sections_with_teasers/votes.htm |access-date= September 11, 2010 |archive-date= January 14, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210114214426/https://www.senate.gov/legislative/votes_new.htm |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The U.S. Congress – Votes Database – Members of Congress / Robert Byrd |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=June 17, 2010 |url=http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/k000105/ |access-date=September 11, 2010 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110035120/http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/k000105/ |archive-date=November 10, 2010 }}</ref> After passage by both houses, a bill is [[Enrolled bill|enrolled]] and sent to the president for approval.<ref name=tws2010Sep11cc/> The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with the president's objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two-thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing{{spaces}}neither signing nor vetoing the bill{{spaces}}and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a [[pocket veto]], and cannot be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
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